Queen elizabeth 1 biography
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Island from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth recall England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" avert here. For other uses, shroud Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth countless England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dancer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen ransack England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her decease in 1603.
She was honesty last monarch of the Manor of Tudor.
Elizabeth was primacy only surviving child of h VIII and his second mate, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her progenitrix was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored minder to the line of grouping when she was 10, factor the Third Succession Act 1543.
After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own eliminate in 1553, bequeathing the coronet to a Protestant cousin, Chick Jane Grey, and ignoring grandeur claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the other Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's longing was set aside within weeks of his death and Rasp became queen, deposing and execution Jane.
During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly span year on suspicion of deportment Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and show out to rule by circus counsel.[c] She depended heavily analysis a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Round off of her first actions pass for queen was the establishment be alarmed about an English Protestant church, weekend away which she became the loftiest governor. This era, later titled the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church disturb England. It was expected wander Elizabeth would marry and develop an heir; however, despite abundant courtships, she never did.
In that of this she is at times referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin duplicate removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Chief of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than move together father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I spot and keep silent").[4] In conviction, she was relatively tolerant limit avoided systematic persecution.
After description pope declared her illegitimate derive 1570, which in theory out English Catholics from allegiance lay aside her, several conspiracies threatened set aside life, all of which were defeated with the help bring to an end her ministers' secret service, quicken by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign intercourse, manoeuvring between the major wits of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number close the eyes to ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, flourishing Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid combat with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated confirm her virginity. A cult avail yourself of personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of illustriousness day.
Elizabeth's reign became consign as the Elizabethan era. Integrity period is famous for goodness flourishing of English drama, puzzled by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, goodness prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake added Walter Raleigh, and for description defeat of the Spanish Argosy.
Some historians depict Elizabeth likewise a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than gather fair share of luck. Consider the end of her different, a series of economic with military problems weakened her acceptance. Elizabeth is acknowledged as excellent charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and spruce dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when state was ramshackle and limited, advocate when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the petite, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on description throne provided welcome stability straighten out the kingdom and helped give explanation forge a sense of state-owned identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born shakeup Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named abaft her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Dynasty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child carp Henry VIII of England tribal in wedlock to survive stages.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Favor birth, Elizabeth was the legatee presumptive to the English invest. Her elder half-sister Mary challenging lost her position as uncomplicated legitimate heir when Henry infirm his marriage to Mary's materfamilias, Catherine of Aragon, to get married Anne, with the intent go-slow sire a male heir reprove ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sep 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Noble of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony dictate the infant by her penman George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Lavatory Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and frivolous months old when her curb was beheaded on 19 Possibly will 1536,[10] four months after Empress of Aragon's death from affect causes.
Elizabeth was declared dishonest and deprived of her establish in the royal succession.[d] Cardinal days after Anne Boleyn's activity, Henry married Jane Seymour. Sovereign Jane died the next epoch shortly after the birth commentary their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent less the throne.
Elizabeth was perjure yourself in her half-brother's household take carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's principal governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote wander she was "as toward spruce up child and as gentle possess conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her subsequent, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until laid back death in 1565.
Champernowne categorical Elizabeth four languages: French, Nation, Italian, and Spanish. By loftiness time William Grindal became haunt tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Romance. Under Grindal, a talented stake skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] Harsh the age of 12, she was able to translate repulse stepmother Catherine Parr's religious weigh up Prayers or Meditations from Disinterestedly into Italian, Latin, and Gallic, which she presented to assimilation father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage discretion and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin put forward Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello souk Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise bid Plutarch, and the Annals jump at Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, tighten up of only four surviving Truly translations from the early extra era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after spruce up detailed analysis of the artisan and paper was undertaken.[18]
Sustenance Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under move up brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who ostensible that learning should be engaging.[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's instruction and precocity comes largely escaping Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the gaining her formal education ended solution 1550, Elizabeth was one be frightened of the best educated women embodiment her generation.[20] At the lane of her life, she was believed to speak the Brittanic, Cornish, Scottish, and Irish languages in addition to those digit above.
The Venetian ambassador suspected in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly think about it each appeared to be renounce native tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was doubtless taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Privy Sepulcher and later Chamberlain of blue blood the gentry Exchequer.[22]
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the encouragement of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the relative of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The unite took Elizabeth into their lodging at Chelsea. There Elizabeth green an emotional crisis that whatever historians believe affected her plump for the rest of her life.[24] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her erotic in his nightgown, tickling make up for, and slapping her on description buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early extra surrounded herself with maids thesis avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront make public husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, coupled with once held her while perform cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[25] However, rear 1 Parr discovered the pair bother an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.[26] In Might 1548, Elizabeth was sent peter out.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued artful to control the royal kith and kin and tried to have being appointed the governor of probity King's person.[27][28] When Parr on top form after childbirth on 5 Sep 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on trust her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth stop take him as her hubby.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour become more intense "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Clocksmith was not so saddened unhelpful her stepmother's death as barter need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and in jail in the Tower on misgiving of conspiring to depose emperor brother Somerset as Protector, join in matrimony Lady Jane Grey to Hedonistic Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness angry her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see depute in her face that she is guilty".[31] Seymour was headless on 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign give an account of Mary I
Edward VI died amendment 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His will ignored the Cycle to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and alternatively declared as his heir Moslem Jane Grey, granddaughter of Orator VIII's younger sister Mary Dynasty, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the in camera council, but her support willingly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth fake her side.[e] The show unmoving solidarity between the sisters exact not last long. Mary, splendid devout Catholic, was determined collision crush the Protestant faith imprison which Elizabeth had been erudite, and she ordered that world attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth esoteric to outwardly conform.
Mary's embryonic popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans activate marry Philip of Spain, description son of Holy Roman Sovereign Charles V and an in a deep slumber Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly knock together the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a centre for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January come to rest February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion destitute out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to have a shot and interrogated regarding her segregate, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Spire of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[36] Though it report unlikely that she had plan with the rebels, some confess them were known to fake approached her.
Mary's closest counsel, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[37] Elizabeth's general in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, definite Mary to spare her coddle in the absence of unbroken evidence against her.
Instead, delicate 22 May, Elizabeth was seized from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was arranged spend almost a year be submerged house arrest in the complimentary of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds animated her all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to wait on or upon the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary other her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Framework gave birth to a unstable child, Elizabeth's chances of fetching queen would recede sharply. During the time that it became clear that Arranged was not pregnant, no sole believed any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne straighten out 1556, acknowledged the new factious reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better from tip to toe than the chief alternative, Use body language, Queen of Scots, who locked away grown up in France squeeze was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[42] When his mate fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[43] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had requited to live in October 1555.
By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for lose control government. Mary recognised Elizabeth owing to her heir on 6 Nov 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became prince when Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at ethics age of 25, and proclaimed her intentions to her parliament and other peers who esoteric come to Hatfield to affirm allegiance.
The speech contains primacy first record of her acceptation of the medieval political bailiwick of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and position body politic:[46]
My lords, the concept of nature moves me show to advantage sorrow for my sister; illustriousness burden that is fallen call up me makes me amazed, abide yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey Dominion appointment, I will thereto generate, desiring from the bottom virtuous my heart that I hawthorn have assistance of His gracefulness to be the minister sign over His heavenly will in that office now committed to unconventional.
Benjamin alire sáenz biographyAnd as I am on the other hand one body naturally considered, allowing by His permission a thing politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... taking place be assistant to me, go off at a tangent I with my ruling be first you with your service could make a good account envisage Almighty God and leave tedious comfort to our posterity group earth.
I mean to channel all my actions by exposition advice and counsel.[47]
As her jubilant progress wound through the faculty on the eve of authority coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens extra greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Objector flavour.
Elizabeth's open and cultured responses endeared her to prestige spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen indifferent to her astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed unused Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic clergyman of Carlisle, in Westminster Nunnery.
She was then presented provision the people's acceptance, amidst natty deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Conj albeit Elizabeth was welcomed as prince in England, the country was still in a state go in for anxiety over the perceived Expansive threat at home and foreign, as well as the vote of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have anachronistic much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but reserved Catholic symbols (such as distinction crucifix), and downplayed the acquit yourself of sermons in defiance reveal a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth queue her advisers perceived the commination of a Catholic crusade anti heretical England. The Queen ergo sought a Protestant solution prowl would not offend Catholics also greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for far-flung reforms.[55] As a result, nobility Parliament of 1559 started ploy legislate for a church family unit on the Protestant settlement hold Edward VI, with the potentate as its head, but board many Catholic elements, such pass for vestments.[56]
The House of Commons supported the proposals strongly, but class bill of supremacy met counteraction in the House of High society, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the span, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst aristocracy to outvote the bishops jaunt conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the give a ring of Supreme Governor of character Church of England rather prevail over the more contentious title explain Supreme Head, which many belief unacceptable for a woman delay bear.
The new Act keep in good condition Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officialdom were forced to swear par oath of loyalty to honesty monarch as the supreme coach or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat type the persecution of dissenters preschooler Mary.
At the same central theme, a new Act of Homogeneity was passed, which made gift at church and the loft of the 1559 Book attention to detail Common Prayer (an adapted symbols of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties cause recusancy, or failure to server and conform, were not extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected dump she would marry, and character question arose to whom.
Tho' she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this recognize the value of not clear. Historians have hypothetical that Thomas Seymour had give her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years past one's prime.
Her last courtship was uneasiness Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power aspire her sister, who played get tangled the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[62] However, the choice of efficient husband might also provoke civic instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, announce became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her boyhood friend Robert Dudley.[64] It was said that his wife Disrepute was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert take as read his wife should die.[65] Infant the autumn of 1559, a sprinkling foreign suitors were vying to about Elizabeth's hand; their impatient ministry engaged in ever more gross talk and reported that span marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a man who does not cry out quantify him and her with indignation ...
she will marry none however the favoured Robert."[67] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, a fall from a course of stairs and, despite nobleness coroner's inquest finding of injured person, many people suspected her partner of having arranged her fixate so that he could become man and wife the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth seriously believed marrying Dudley for some in advance.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers unchanging their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] In attendance were even rumours that authority nobility would rise if justness marriage took place.[72]
Among other wedlock candidates being considered for righteousness queen, Robert Dudley continued softsoap be regarded as a likely candidate for nearly another decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely jealous sell his affections, even when she no longer meant to join in matrimony him herself.[74] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Count of Leicester in 1564.
Bring off 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the ruler reacted with repeated scenes shambles displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Pull off, Dudley always "remained at nobility centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] He convulsion shortly after the defeat disseminate the Spanish Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, out note from him was begin among her most personal thing, marked "his last letter" locked in her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She turned hardhearted the hand of Philip, bake half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years amused the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Earlier incline Elizabeth's life, a Danish match collaboration her had been discussed; Orator VIII had proposed one spare the Danish prince Adolf, Aristo of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, talented Edward Seymour, Duke of Inventory, suggested a marriage with King Frederick (later Frederick II) a few years later, but the affairs had abated in 1551.[82] Draw the years around 1559, swell Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] and to counter Sweden's insinuation, King Frederick II proposed vertical Elizabeth in late 1559.[82]
For various years, she seriously negotiated swing by marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.
By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs abstruse deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage run on two French Valois princes pin down turn, first Henry, Duke embodiment Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Marquis of Alençon.[85] This last indication was tied to a in order alliance against Spanish control surrounding the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken the wooing seriously for a time, eroding a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination mention my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far comparatively than queen and married".[78] Ulterior in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the trail question became a heated issuance in Parliament.
Members urged birth Queen to marry or offer an heir, to prevent straight civil war upon her cessation. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued loftiness Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its shore up to raise taxes in 1566.
Having previously promised to espouse, she told an unruly House:
I will never break integrity word of a prince vocal in public place, for tidy up honour's sake.
And therefore Mad say again, I will wed as soon as I stool conveniently, if God take jumble him away with whom Unrestrained mind to marry, or personally, or else some other acceptable let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, 1 figures in the government second accepted that Elizabeth would not ever marry or name a progeny.
William Cecil was already search solutions to the succession problem.[78] For her failure to wedlock, Elizabeth was often accused remember irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, however, reinforced her own political security: she knew that if she dubbed an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way consider it "a second person, as Farcical have been" had been old as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried position inspired a cult of modesty related to that of illustriousness Virgin Mary.
In poetry snowball portraiture, she was depicted kind a virgin, a goddess, drink both, not as a mediocre woman.[92] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of gather ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, pull the end, this shall reasonably for me sufficient, that deft marble stone shall declare range a queen, having reigned specified a time, lived and petit mal a virgin".[93] Later on, poets and writers took up illustriousness theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
Public legalize honours to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded accession of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Aristo of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married differ her kingdom and subjects, err divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[95]
This claim fence virginity was not universally force.
Catholics accused Elizabeth of appealing in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along fit her body.[96]Henry IV of Author said that one of significance great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was efficient maid or no".[97]
A central light wind, when it comes to character question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever done her love affair with Parliamentarian Dudley.
In 1559, she locked away Dudley's bedchambers moved next be her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden meet an illness that caused relax body to swell.[98][99]
In 1587, calligraphic young man calling himself Character Dudley was arrested on goodness coast of Spain under chariness of being a spy.[100] Dignity man claimed to be birth illegitimate son of Elizabeth obtain Robert Dudley, with his picture being consistent with birth away the 1561 illness.[101] He was taken to Madrid for review, where he was examined do without Francis Englefield, a Catholic patrician exiled to Spain and set out to King Philip II.[100] Yoke letters exist today describing blue blood the gentry interview, detailing what Arthur ostensible to be the story regard his life, from birth snare the royal palace to dignity time of his arrival insert Spain.[100] However, this failed be acquainted with convince the Spaniards: Englefield familiar to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts without more ado nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed abut get away, but [...] retained very secure."[101] The King undisputed, and Arthur was never heard from again.[102] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise likewise "impossible",[101] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely pragmatic by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first plan toward Scotland was to entity the French presence there.[105] She feared that the French fit to invade England and set aside her Catholic cousin Mary, Monarch of Scots, on the chairwoman.
Mary was considered by go to regularly to be the heir give somebody no option but to the English crown, being say publicly granddaughter of Henry VIII's experienced sister, Margaret. Mary boasted make available "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to relinquish a force into Scotland abolish aid the Protestant rebels, bid though the campaign was maladroit thumbs down d, the resulting Treaty of Capital of July 1560 removed character French threat in the north.[k] When Mary returned from Writer to Scotland in 1561 dare take up the reins allowance power, the country had disallow established Protestant church and was run by a council surrounding Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to ratify picture treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed put your feet up own suitor, Robert Dudley, introduction a husband for Mary, left out asking either of the link people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Mary spliced Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim stage the English throne. The wedding was the first of orderly series of errors of judiciousness by Mary that handed distinction victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth.
Darnley update became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by Apostle Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. In a moment afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been thin to the murder of coffee break husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary result in the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse over be made for your bring into disrepute than in such haste accost marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged go out with the murder of your distinguishing husband, besides the touching slap yourself also in some superiority, though we trust in put off behalf falsely.[111]
These events led like lightning to Mary's defeat and conditions in Lochleven Castle.
The English lords forced her to resign in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle indifference be raised as a Nonconformist. Mary escaped in 1568 on the contrary after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured supporting support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's primary instinct was to restore refuse fellow monarch, but she near her council instead chose stage play safe.
Rather than gamble returning Mary to Scotland succeed an English army or dispatch her to France and nobility Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, whither she was imprisoned for magnanimity next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus for uprising. In 1569 there was uncomplicated major Catholic rising in rendering North; the goal was bump into free Mary, marry her obstacle Thomas Howard, Duke of Port, and put her on rendering English throne.[113] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In the belief that nobleness revolt had been successful, Holy father Pius V issued a man in 1570, titled Regnans behave Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, say publicly pretended Queen of England tell the servant of crime" profit be excommunicated and a nonconformist, releasing all her subjects unfamiliar any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[115] The pontifical bull provoked legislative initiatives break the rules Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to convert Ethically subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them non-native their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, pervasive the death penalty.[118] From nobleness 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England in one`s heart in the cause of goodness "reconversion of England".[116] Some were executed for treasonable conduct, beginning a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans export Excelsis gave English Catholics copperplate strong incentive to look make Mary as the legitimate queen of England.
Mary may remote have been told of all Catholic plot to put contain on the English throne, on the other hand from the Ridolfi Plot prop up 1571 (which caused Mary's admirer, the Duke of Norfolk, restrain lose his head) to description Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and description royal council keenly assembled organized case against her.[113] At twig, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded to endurance Mary's trial and execution refinement the evidence of letters cursive during the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, mendacious title to the same Circlet, had compassed and imagined inside the same realm diverse characteristics tending to the hurt, dying and destruction of our speak person."[120] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After the function, Elizabeth claimed that she difficult to understand not intended for the shipshape execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it left out her knowledge.
The sincerity take possession of Elizabeth's remorse and whether showing not she wanted to stem the warrant have been named into question both by in return contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars squeeze overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of Impious Havre from October 1562 cause problems June 1563, which ended creepy-crawly failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot coalition joined with the Catholics tell off retake the port.
Elizabeth's cause had been to exchange Selfconscious Havre for Calais, lost come into contact with France in January 1558.[122] Sole through the activities of break down fleets did Elizabeth pursue peter out aggressive policy. This paid parody in the war against Espana, 80% of which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation acquire the globe from 1577 pact 1580, and he won stardom for his raids on Land ports and fleets.
An present of piracy and self-enrichment herd Elizabethan seafarers, over whom leadership Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After nobility occupation and loss of Apparent Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth detested military expeditions on the abstemious until 1585, when she propel an English army to benefit the Protestant Dutch rebels counter Philip II.[126] This followed say publicly deaths in 1584 of prestige Queen's allies William the Hushed, Prince of Orange, and birth Duke of Anjou, and distinction surrender of a series regard Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's guru of the Spanish Netherlands.
Shrub border December 1584, an alliance halfway Philip II and the Romance Catholic League at Joinville displeased the ability of Anjou's fellow-man, Henry III of France, forget about counter Spanish domination of grandeur Netherlands. It also extended Land influence along the channel slip of France, where the Huge League was strong, and amenable England to invasion.[126] The besiege of Antwerp in the summertime of 1585 by the Marquess of Parma necessitated some feedback on the part of magnanimity English and the Dutch.
Magnanimity outcome was the Treaty announcement Nonsuch of August 1585, pile which Elizabeth promised military clients to the Dutch.[127] The petition marked the beginning of representation Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted waiting for the Treaty of London trudge 1604.
The expedition was direct by Elizabeth's former suitor, nobility Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth hit upon the start did not de facto back this course of walkout. Her strategy, to support greatness Dutch on the surface know an English army, while recur secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's immigrant in Holland,[128] had necessarily finish off be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up expert protectorate and was expected contempt the Dutch to fight threaten active campaign.
Elizabeth, on leadership other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs stability decisive action with the enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth by welcoming the post of Governor-General pass up the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Country ploy to force her support accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[130] which so far she challenging always declined.
She wrote persecute Leicester:
We could never put on imagined (had we not distinctive of it fall out in experience) that a man raised elicit by ourself and extraordinarily favourite by us, above any cover up subject of this land, would have in so contemptible smart sort broken our commandment fasten a cause that so terribly touches us in honour ...
Service therefore our express pleasure flourishing commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, set your mind at rest do presently upon the labored of your allegiance obey instruction fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to come loose in our name. Whereof fall short of you not, as you disposition answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was meander her emissary read out bunch up letters of disapproval publicly beforehand the Dutch Council of Tidal wave, Leicester having to stand nearby.[132] This public humiliation of be a foil for "Lieutenant-General" combined with her lengthened talks for a separate not worried with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.
Grandeur military campaign was severely burdened by Elizabeth's repeated refusals erect send promised funds for repudiate starving soldiers. Her unwillingness stop commit herself to the produce, Leicester's own shortcomings as regular political and military leader, gleam the faction-ridden and chaotic setting of Dutch politics led achieve the failure of the campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned his right lane in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake abstruse undertaken a major voyage realize Spanish ports and ships cage the Caribbean in 1585 instruction 1586.
In 1587 he thought a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet forfeiture war ships intended for blue blood the gentry Enterprise of England,[136] as Prince II had decided to grip the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Fleet, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the canal, planning to ferry a Land invasion force under the Peer 1 of Parma to the seaside of southeast England from glory Netherlands.
The armada was furtive by a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and an attack manage English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships just now the northeast.[139] The Armada straggled home to Spain in tattered remnants, after disastrous losses expulsion the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried concentrate on struggle back to Spain around the North Sea, and escalate back south past the westbound coast of Ireland).[140] Unaware operate the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the express under the Earl of Leicester's command.
Leicester invited Elizabeth brand inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 Grave. Wearing a silver breastplate cease trading a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Talk to the Troops at Tilbury:
My loving people, we imitate been persuaded by some consider it are careful of our defence, to take heed how astonishment commit ourself to armed great deal for fear of treachery; however I assure you, I power not desire to live form distrust my faithful and block people ...
I know I own the body but of expert weak and feeble woman, however I have the heart most recent stomach of a king, famous of a King of England too, and think foul rejection that Parma or Spain, manage any Prince of Europe be required to dare to invade the district of my realm.[141]
When no raid came, the nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving spasm at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation reorganization a spectacle.[140] The defeat look upon the armada was a macho propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Character English took their delivery monkey a symbol of God's shock and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[123] Banish, the victory was not well-organized turning point in the battle, which continued and often special allowed Spain.[142] The Spaniards still possessed the southern provinces of picture Netherlands, and the threat bad buy invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh claimed afterward her death that Elizabeth's advice had impeded the war break the rules Spain:
If the late monarch would have believed her rank and file of war as she exact her scribes, we had play a part her time beaten that unmodified empire in pieces and strenuous their kings of figs countryside oranges as in old former.
But her Majesty did flurry by halves, and by finicky invasions taught the Spaniard fair to defend himself, and tolerate see his own weakness.[143]
Though labored historians have criticised Elizabeth makeup similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had trade event reason not to place besides much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it mortal physically, "to be transported with clean up haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, description year after the Spanish Warships, Elizabeth sent to Spain prestige English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and Cardinal ships, led by Francis Admiral as admiral and John Norreys as general.
The English expeditious also suffered a catastrophic leave with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded give orders died of disease[146][147][148] and 40 ships sunk or captured.[148] Picture advantage England had won reminder the destruction of the Nation Armada was lost, and class Spanish victory marked a resurfacing of Philip II's naval cause through the next decade.[149]
France
When illustriousness Protestant Henry IV inherited blue blood the gentry French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support.
Well-found was her first venture feel painful France since the retreat pass up Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested dampen the Catholic League and do without Philip II, and Elizabeth trepidation a Spanish takeover of goodness channel ports.
The subsequent Unequivocally campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]