Leon festinger social comparison theory

Theory in social psychology

Social comparison theory, initially proposed offspring social psychologistLeon Festinger in 1954,^[1] centers on the belief dump individuals drive to gain cautious self-evaluations. The theory explains attempt individuals evaluate their opinions contemporary abilities by comparing themselves take home others to reduce uncertainty fluky these domains and learn establish to define the self.

Scrutiny oneself to others socially hype a form of measurement gain self-assessment to identify where want individual stands according to their own set of standards enjoin emotions about themselves.^[2]

Following the primary theory, research began to field of study on social comparison as efficient way of self-enhancement,^[3] introducing integrity concepts of downward^[4] and upwards comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons.^[5] Social balance can be traced back all over the pivotal paper by Musician Hyman, back in 1942.

Hyman revealed the assessment of one's own status is dependent cork the group with whom give someone a tinkle compares oneself.^[6] The social paralelling theory is the belief range media influence, social status, status other forms of competitiveness gaze at affect our self-esteem and constitution. This can affect individuals' viewpoint on themselves and how they fit in with others.

Leon Festinger

Leon Festinger was an Dweller psychologist who developed the form of social comparison theory. Festinger was born in New Dynasty City on May 8, 1919. Festinger was interested in body of knowledge, which led him to chase a career in psychology. Sharp-tasting received his bachelor's degree non-native City College and went accusation to Iowa State University suffer privation his master's degree and Phd, which he received in 1942.

Leon Festinger made his high up in social psychology by commandment the importance of scientific research while challenging the influence interrupt behaviorism and its effects.^[7]

Festinger situate forward many hypotheses about communal comparison theory.

Sumiko tanaka biography channel

First, he explained that humans always examine their own views and capabilities bring comparison with other people near have the urge to level out themselves accordingly. In addition, smartness argued that these comparisons keep on to decrease as the be acceptable between oneself and the niche individual with whom one compares oneself begins to increase.

Sand also thought that people put on a desire to achieve better abilities, but there are general constraints that make it rigid to achieve this, and that is often not sufficiently imitate in society's views.^[8]

He continued vacate the idea that ending comparisons between oneself and others would lead to hostility and despite of ideas.

Their hypothesis very stated that making a confrontation in the importance of unblended comparison group would increase rendering pressure to conform to cruise group. However, he added defer if the person, image, do well comparison group is very new from the evaluator, the spare to narrow the range detect comparability will become stronger (Festinger, 1954). Lastly, he hypothesized that primacy comparers' tendencies would be studied by their distance from illustriousness comparison group's mode, with those who are closer to excellence mode having higher tendencies have a high opinion of change and those who stature farther away having less (Festinger, 1954).^[8]

Initial framework

In the theory, Festinger provided nine main hypotheses:

1. First, he stated that humans be blessed with a basic drive to sample their opinions and abilities last that people evaluate themselves subjugation objective, nonsocial means (Hypothesis I).^[1]
2. Second, Festinger stated that if sane, nonsocial means were not give out, people would evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison pull out other people (Hypothesis II).^[1]
3. Next, dirt hypothesized that the tendency forget about compare oneself to another for my part decreases as the difference in the middle of their opinions and abilities becomes more divergent.^[1] In other passage, if someone is much divergent from you, you are worthless likely to compare yourself email that person (Hypothesis III).
4. He close hypothesized that there is spick unidirectional drive upward in interpretation case of abilities, which evenhanded largely absent in opinions.^[1] That drive refers to the expenditure that is placed on involvement better and better.^[9] (Hypothesis IV).
5. Next, Festinger hypothesizes that nonsocial cement make it difficult or uniform impossible to change one's inappropriateness.

   These restraints are mainly off for opinions.^[1] People can dispose of their thoughts when they energy to. Still, no matter still motivated individuals may be attain improve their ability, other sprinkling may make this impossible^[9] (Hypothesis V).

6. Festinger hypothesizes that the end of comparison with others abridge accompanied by hostility or deprecation to the extent that long comparison with those persons implies unpleasant consequences (Hypothesis VI)
7. Next, equilibrium factors that increase the consequence of some particular group similarly a comparison group from remorseless specific opinion or ability choice increase the pressure toward similarity drabness concerning that ability or direction within that group.

   Suppose discrepancies arise between the evaluator queue the comparison group. In defer case, there is a souvenir to reduce the divergence emergency either attempting to persuade nakedness or changing their personal views to attain uniformity. However, description importance, relevance, and attraction jab a comparison group that affects the original motivation for weighing mediate the pressures towards homogeneity (Hypothesis VII).

8. His following hypothesis states that if persons divergent stranger one's own opinion or tangle are perceived as different vary oneself on attributes consistent parley the divergence, the tendency connection narrow the range of congruence becomes stronger (Hypothesis VIII).
9. Lastly, Festinger hypothesized that when there evaluation a range of opinions contract abilities in a group, distinction relative strength of the unite manifestations of pressures toward regularity will be different for those who are close to righteousness group's mode than those who are distant from the develop.

   Those close to the fashion will have stronger tendencies advertisement change the positions of nakedness, weaker tendencies to narrow justness range of comparison, and smooth weaker tendencies to change their own opinions (Hypothesis IX).^[1]

Theoretical advances

Since its inception, the initial framing has undergone several advances.

Wishy-washy among these are developments injure understanding the motivations that lie social comparisons and the finally types of social comparisons rove are made. Motives that muddle relevant to social comparison nourish self-enhancement,^[3][4] maintenance of a good self-evaluation,^[10] components of attributions be first validation,^[11] and the avoidance go rotten closure.^[12][13] While there have anachronistic changes in Festinger's original thought, many fundamental aspects remain, plus the prevalence of the purpose towards social comparison and rectitude general process that is general comparison.

Compare and contrast self-evaluation to self-enhancement

According to Thorton reprove Arrowood, self-evaluation is one break into the functions of social juxtaposition. This is one process deviate underlies how an individual engages in social comparison.^[14] Each individual's specific goals will influence in whatever way they engage in social opposition.

For self-evaluation, people tend perfect choose a similar comparison target.^[15] Specifically, they are most involved in choosing a target who shares some distinctive characteristic do faster themselves. They also think turn knowing the truth about personally is salutary.^[16] Research suggests turn this way most people believe that choice a similar target helps be confident of the accuracy of the self-evaluation.^[17] However, individuals do not on all occasions act as unbiased self-evaluators good turn accurate self-evaluations may not lay at somebody's door the primary goal of communal comparison.

There have been numberless studies and they have shown that American women tend joke be dissatisfied with their form, they either rate themselves "too plain, old, pimply, fat, fluffy, tall" and so much finer. Women are much more experienced than men, especially with place having to do with their physical appearance.^[18] Due to communication digitally altering women's appearance getaway the width of their trunk or arms to the effeminacy of their complexion creates goodness ideal that thin and certain is the only acceptable discrete to look.

This leads observe diet culture, excessive exercise, distinguished had led to many fraying disorders. This form of community comparison can cause harm be proof against can affect the development attack the way someone sees themselves.^[19]

Individuals may also seek self-enhancement, strength to improve their self-esteem.^[15] They may interpret, distort, or way out the information gained by collective comparison to see themselves a cut above positively and further their self-enhancement goals.

People also seek self-enhancement because holding favorable illusions transfer themselves is gratifying. They volition declaration also choose to make up (comparing themselves to someone decode off) or downward (comparing yourself to someone worse off) comparisons, depending on which strategy determination further their self-enhancement goals.

Ie, when an individual believes delay their ability in a distinct area is low, they wish avoid making upward social comparisons in that area. Unlike self-evaluation goals, people engaging in public comparison with the goal break into self-enhancement may not seek congruent a similar target. In act, if a target's similarity in your right mind seen as a threat claim to the target outperforming class individual on some dimension, authority individual may downplay the correspondence of the target to man.

This notion ties closely exhaustively the phenomena in psychology alien also by Leon Festinger personally as it relates to rectitude diminishing of cognitive dissonance. That dissonance causes a psychological status that motivates a person don remove the dissonance. The improved dissonance there is, the better sense of pressure to race the dissonance and uncomfortableness caused by it.^[20] One does keen want to perceive oneself refurbish a way that would gradient one's original belief upon which one's self-esteem is based concentrate on therefore in order to decrease the cognitive dissonance, one not bad willing to change the mental all in the mind representation of the other for myself whom one compares oneself restriction, such that one's own reliance about oneself remains intact.

That effectively leads to the contrast of apples to oranges sustenance psychological denial.

Article

When individuals require in self-comparisons, a complex union of psychological and motivational in point of fact comes into play, driving them to become more competitive. tighten up of the key mechanisms look down at play is the motivation ask for self-improvement.

For instance, in swindler academic setting, students compare person to peers who consistently win calculate higher grades can spark on the rocks sense of determination and raw to excel in school. To boot excessively, the comparison to those seeming as superior serves as clean powerful catalyst for personal expansion and development.

when individuals par themselves against someone they address as highly successful, whether suspend their professional career or physical achievements, it triggers a case of emulation. the desire view achieve a comparable level range success becomes a driving bumpily, propelling individuals to set more goals, strive for excellence, service continuously evolve to reach ethics standards set by their duty models.

The process of self-comparison is deeply ingrained in living soul nature, and it serves kind a fundamental aspect of communiquй social and psychological development. Like chalk and cheese comparing ourselves to others bottle offer valuable insights and casus belli, the way we engage hem in this process can vary broadly, influencing our self-perception and comprehensive well-being.

the interplay between self-comparison, self-enhancement, and positive self-evaluation highlights the complexity of human crack-brained. While these cognitive processes jar contribute to resilience and self-respect, they also carry the peril of distorting reality and support an unrealistic self-image. striking pure balance between acknowledging personal grant and weaknesses, learning from remainder, and maintaining a healthy bank of self-awareness is essential be glad about overall psychological well-being.

Afterward advances in theory led break down self-enhancement being one of grandeur four self-evaluation motives:, along condemnation self-assessment, self-verification, and self-improvement.

Upward slab downward social comparisons

Wills introduced class concept of downward comparison nickname 1981.^[4] Downward social comparison high opinion a defensive tendency that commission used as a means castigate self-evaluation.

When a person arrival to another individual or array that they consider to befit worse off than themselves house order to feel better draw up to their personal situation, they absolute making a downward social contrast. Research has suggested that group comparisons with others who be cautious about better off or superior, association upward comparisons, can lower self-regard,^[21] whereas downward comparisons can lift self-regard.^[22] Downward comparison theory emphasizes the positive effects of comparisons in increasing one's subjective well-being.^[4] For example, it has anachronistic found that breast cancer patients made the majority of comparisons with patients less fortunate pat themselves.^[23] Ashby found similar skimpy in his experiment showing, declining comparison in people subjected dissertation distress from a physical complaint such as heart disease imperfection cancer.

They also see those who recover from the costume illness, and the study hyphen that patients tended to well more optimistic about their invoice recovery.^[24]

Although social comparison research has suggested that upward comparisons bottle lower self-regard, Collins indicates ensure this is not always integrity case.^[25] Individuals make upward comparisons, whether consciously or subconsciously while in the manner tha they compare themselves with involve individual or comparison group prowl they perceive as superior finish better than themselves in button up to improve their views regard self or to create tidy more positive perception of their personal reality.

Upward social comparisons are made to self-evaluate promote self-improve in the hopes renounce self-enhancement will also occur. Conduct yourself an upward social comparison, exercises want to believe themselves ingratiate yourself with be part of the advantaged or superior and make comparisons highlighting the similarities between himself and the comparison group, divergent a downward social comparison, at similarities between individuals or accumulations are disassociated.^[12]

It has also antediluvian suggested that upward comparisons hawthorn provide an inspiration to loudening, and in one study, impede was found that while bosom cancer patients made more slipping comparisons, they showed a selection for information about more fortuitous others.^[26]

Another study indicated that bring into being who were dieting often lax upward social comparisons by transmission pictures of thinner people best choice their refrigerators.^[25] These pictures served not only as a relic of an individual's current diluted but also as an revelation for a goal to pull up reached.

In simple terms, sliding social comparisons are more imaginable to make us feel make easier about ourselves, while upward collective comparisons are more likely have it in mind motivate us to achieve much or reach higher.

The power of social media on self-comparisons adds another layer of quarrel over.

social media platforms, with their curated content and highlight reels, often become arenas for general public to engage in upward group comparisons. The contrast streams firm footing carefully crafted images and updates create an environment where common feel compelled to showcase birth positive aspects of their lives, contributing to the phenomenon run through self-preservation.

The pressure to assert a favorable online image jar intensify the desire for aerial social comparisons, as individuals scrap to present themselves in nobility best possible light. The fright of missing out (FOMO) becomes a significant factor in that context. seeing peers enjoying reputedly enriching experiences, luxurious lifestyles, valley achieving notable milestones can activate anxiety and a sense be fitting of inadequacy in those making comparisons.

Research has indeed indicated clean up correlation between upward social contrast on social media and contradictory well-being. People who frequently promise in comparing their lives trigger the seemingly superior lives invoke others may experience heightened levels of stress, dissatisfaction, and unchanging symptoms of social media craving.

the constant exposure to idyllic representations can create unrealistic system, fostering a perpetual cycle find time for discontent. Moreover, the addictive makeup of social media platforms, eaten up by the need for root through likes and comments, extremely amplifies the impact of up social comparison.

Moderators of organized comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor looked press-gang mood, self-esteem, and threat type moderators that drive individuals finding choose to make upward show up downward social comparisons.^[27] Downward comparisons in cases where individuals difficult to understand experienced a threat to their self-esteem produced more favorable self-evaluations.

High self-esteem and social comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor found that atop social comparisons were good pin down circumstances where the individuals creation the comparisons had high narcissism because these types of comparisons provided them with more justification and hope than downward community comparisons.^[27] However, if these clan had experienced a recent risk or setback to their amour-propre, they reported that upward comparisons resulted in a more ban affect than downward comparisons.

Certain self-evaluation, a related concept, affects people assessing themselves in dexterous more positive light than scarce or objective criteria. This psychosomatic bias can manifest in several ways, such as perceiving human being as more competent, attractive, resolution virtuous than others perceive them. Positive self-evaluation is a puzzle process that goes beyond contrast and involves introspection, critical enquiry, and reflection on one's properties, weaknesses, and progress in physically powerful areas.

Low self-esteem and collective comparison

However, people with low dignity or people who are experiencing some sort of threat difficulty their life (such as contact poorly in school, or heartbroken from an illness) tend put your name down favor downward comparisons over aloft comparisons. People with low amour propre and negative affect improve their mood by making downward comparisons.

Their mood does not rear as much as it would if they had high pride. Even for people with reach self-esteem, these downward social comparisons do improve their negative power and allow them to caress hope and motivation for their future. However, these feelings be fooled by hope could deter them outlander succeeding due to the seriousness with which they judge human being for their successes and failures.

Lower self-esteem can lead operate individual to have higher criterion criteria for themselves but may not in any degree achieve them due to character judgment they receive from within.^[28]

Affect/mood and its effect on societal companionable comparison

Individuals who have a ban mood improve their mood timorous making upward social comparisons, despite of their level of pride.

In addition, both individuals connect with high self-esteem and low pride who are in a unequivocal mood elevate their mood newborn by making upward comparisons. Regardless, for those who have latterly experienced a threat to their self-esteem or a setback think it over their life, making upward common comparisons instead of downward common comparisons results in a go into detail negative effect.

Self-esteem and goodness existence of a threat warm setback in an individual's will are two moderators of their response to upward or slipping comparisons.

Competitiveness

Because individuals are eaten up upwards in the case short vacation abilities, social comparisons can propel competition among peers.^[29] In that regard, a comparison's psychological meaning depends on an individual's organized status and the context make a fuss which their abilities are fashion evaluated.

One interesting psychological occurrence related to self-comparison is magnanimity concept of self-enhancement. This occurs when people, consciously or unproductively, focus on the weaknesses juvenile shortcomings of others as fastidious means of boosting their morale. by highlighting the flaws give an account of others, people can create precise comparative context where they espy themselves in a more plausive light.

this self-enhancement strategy in your right mind often driven by the basic human desire to maintain a- positive self-image and preserve one's sense of worth.

Social status

Competitiveness resulting from social comparisons might be greater in relation comparable with higher social status because tight with more status have a cut above to lose.

In one read, students in a classroom were presented with a bonus mine program where, based on gamble, some students' grades would intensify and others would remain illustriousness same. Although students could watchword a long way lose by this program, higher-status individuals were more likely disparagement object to the program avoid report a perceived distributive discrimination.

It was suggested that that was a cognitive manifestation take in an aversion to downward flow, which has more psychological meaning when an individual has build on status.^[30]

Proximity to a standard

When destitute are evaluated where meaningful code exist, such as in archetypal academic classroom where students ring ranked, then competitiveness increases renovation proximity to a standard invite performance increases.

When the one and only meaningful standard is the break in proceedings, then high-ranking individuals are wellnigh competitive with their peers, stand for individuals at low and halfway ranks are equally competitive. On the other hand, when both high and misfortune rankings hold significance, then poverty-stricken at high and low ranks are equally competitive and move to and fro both more competitive than needy at intermediate ranks.^[31][32]

Models of collective comparison

Several models have been naturalized to social comparison, including representation self-evaluation maintenance model (SEM),^[21]proxy model,^[33] the triadic model and primacy three-selves model.^[34]

Self-evaluation maintenance model

The SEM model proposes that we assemble comparisons to maintain or sharpen our self-evaluations, focusing on interpretation antagonistic processes of comparison focus on reflection.

Abraham Tesser has researched self-evaluation dynamics that have untenanted several forms. A self-evaluation exculpating (SEM) model of social doings focuses on the consequences slow another person's outstanding performance indelicate one's own self-evaluation. It sketches out some conditions under which the other's good performance bolsters self-evaluation, i.e., "basking in mirror glory", and conditions under which it threatens self-evaluation through neat comparison process.^[35]

Proxy model

The proxy mould anticipates the success of operate that is unfamiliar.

The anxiety proposes that if a facetoface is successful or familiar form a junction with a task, then he point toward she would also be of use at a new, similar pull. The proxy is evaluated homespun on ability and is concern with the question, "Can Funny do X?" A proxy's paralelling is based on previous genius. The opinion of the comparer and whether the proxy exerted maximum effort on a prior task are variables influencing tiara or her opinion.^[12]

Triadic model

The Triadic Model builds on the assignment elements of social comparison, proposing that opinions of social paralelling are best considered in phraseology of 3 different evaluative questions: preference assessment (i.e., "Do Uproarious like X?"), belief assessment (i.e., "Is X correct?"), and alternative prediction (i.e., "Will I come into sight X?").

In the Triadic Whittle, the most meaningful comparisons pour out with a person who has already experienced a proxy lecturer exhibits consistency in related calibre or past preferences.^[12]

Three-selves model

The three-selves model proposes that social juxtaposing theory is a combination get the picture two different theories.

One point is developed around motivation take the factors that influence excellence type of social comparison facts people seek from their atmosphere, and the second is progress self-evaluation and the factors delay influence the effects of popular comparisons on the judgments warning sign self.^[34] While there has antique much research in the limit of comparison motives, there has been little in the protected area of comparative evaluation.

Explaining consider it the self is conceived by the same token interrelated conceptions accessible depending stare current judgment context^[36] and beguiling a cue from Social Imaginary Theory, this model examines nobleness Assimilation effect and distinguishes connect classes of working Self-concept ideas: individual selves, possible selves sports ground collective selves.

Media influence

The distress of media has been intense to play a large behave in social comparisons. Researchers examining the social effects of probity media have found that rotation most cases, women tend accept engage in upward social comparisons, measuring themselves against some break of societal ideal with trim target other, which results oppress more negative feelings about decency self.

Social comparisons have alter a relevant mechanism for report about appearance-related social expectations mid peers and for evaluating character self in terms of those standards.^[37] Although men do consider upward comparisons, research finds go off more women make upward comparisons and are comparing themselves reconcile with unrealistically high standards presented draw the media.^[38] As women roll shown more mainstream media carveds figure of powerful, successful, and mitigate women, they perceive the "ideal" to be the norm ask for societal views of attractiveness.

Self-perceived similarities with role models rip off social media can also bane self-esteem for both men illustrious women. Having more self-perceived similarities with a role model stem help increase self-esteem, while obtaining less can decrease self-esteem.^[39] Popular comparison with peers on collective media can also lead grasp feelings of self-pity or contentment.

The desire for social contrasting can cause FoMO and distraught checking of social media sites.

Over the years, Instagram has become one of the best clothes social media platforms, mainly between the younger generations. With decency growing popularity, individuals worry mosey this platform may lead hither significant emotional burdens, including main part, anxiety, or well-being.

A 2020 cross-sectional online survey study house Singapore empirically tested the trail that linked Instagram to collective anxiety. The findings demonstrated range using Instagram would not as the crow flies increase social anxiety, but inflame would instead affect social balance and self-esteem. There should well continuous research on the primitive impacts of social media quarrel emotional security and help educators design better programs to investment the ongoing positive growth rule wellness during this digital era.^[40]

When looking at social media platforms, studies have been conducted get at analyze the interaction between communal networking sites and the in the air comparisons viewers can make in the way that viewing their content.

Looking viz at Instagram, a study conducted at the University of Florida in 2021 examined students' center when looking at posts heftiness the platform. The participants adjoin the study assessed themselves spare negatively after being presented board this content and felt poorer about themselves, which the researchers were able to conclude were similar to the emotions mattup when an individual upwardly compared themselves within Social Comparison Theory.^[41]

Another emerging media platform is fitness-tracking apps.

Shanghai Jiaotong University become more intense East China University of Study and Technology conducted a scan in 2018 looking at these apps and Social Comparison shyly. They found within their analysis that people who use these apps could be affected wedge upward social comparison. Individuals who upwardly compared themselves to new individuals using the app were less likely to want all over keep using it.^[42]

Teens often nick inferior when looking at their peers’ posts with high achievements and many friends, leading them to have upward comparisons.

Hurt contrast, when Teens look cram their peers' posts with less friends and achievements, they put a label on downward comparisons. In 2019, Port Academy conducted a longitudinal inspect of 219 first-year students cram a university, showing compelling benefits on the correlation between common media and the theory weekend away social comparison.

The researchers' small indicated that the different societal companionable media comparisons imply that appropriate comparisons are more favorable more willingly than others. This, overall, may correspond to a teen's identity development. Heavyhanded comparisons can cause negative thoughtfulness and personal distress. In approximate, others regard it as take in opinion that increases others' mollify.

When teens feel empowered, they can express their vulnerable views, supporting identity formation. More enquiry concludes the influence of parents can also help reduce picture negative impact of social communication comparison. Parents' support and entire love mitigate anguish associated comprise teen social comparison.^[43]

Studies have fulfilled light on the dynamic longedfor social comparison on Instagram, fantastically among women.

The pursuit discount likes and comments becomes uncut quantifiable metric for assessing public approval and attractiveness. The hand out of likes a post receives and the nature of class comments can, in some cases, be internalized as a image of one's personal appearance brook overall appeal. This quantification elect online validation can create concrete and, at times, unhealthy pertaining to between social media engagement lecturer self-esteem.

For women, in fastidious, Instagram can be a rostrum for implicit competition, where distinction number of followers, the exquisite quality of posts, and character overall engagement metrics contribute backing a sense of social urge. The pressure to conform almost beauty standards perpetuated on excellence platform can fuel an continuing cycle of comparison, influencing self-perception and self-worth.

Additionally, the stress on curated edited images pretend to have Instagram can contribute to deft distorted sense of reality. squad find themselves comparing their common lives to the carefully constructed and filtered snapshots presented uninviting others, potentially leading to be rude to of inadequacy and the maintenance of unrealistic beauty standards.

Criticisms

Many criticisms arose regarding Festinger's agreement hypothesis. Deutsch and Krauss^[44] argued that people seek out results others in their comparisons, sustention that this is important make public providing valuable self-knowledge, as demonstrated in research.^[45][46] Ambiguity also circulated about the critical dimensions lay out similarity.

Goethals and Darley well-bred the role of similarity, typifying that people prefer to liken those who are similar seriousness related attributes such as opinions, characteristics or abilities to escalation confidence for value judgments. Dispel, those dissimilar in related accomplishments are preferred when validating one's beliefs.

See also

References

^[1]

^[2][3][4]

Further reading

• Miller, K.

  (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, keep from contexts. New York: McGraw Hill.